Fig.
1
Design of new composite aquaculture net cage
| Citation: |
WANG Ruixuan, XU Liwen, FENG Juan. A review of the pathogenic bacteria, diagnosis and vaccine of principal bacterial diseases of mariculture fish[J]. South China Fisheries Science, 2005, 1(6): 72-79.
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The most important bacterial diseases such as vibriosis, "winter ulcer", photobacteriosis, furunculosis, marine flexibacteriosis, pseudomonadiasis, streptococciosis, bacterial kidney disease(BKD), mycobacteriosis and edwardsiellosis, yersiniaosis encountered in the rapidly developing mariculture industry are described, including the pathogenic bacteria and diagnosis of these diseases.To reduce the outbreaking of fish diseases, vaccination of cultured fish for control of specific bacterial disease is now a common practice. So the studies of vaccines for fish is also described in this review. These assessments will benefit for marine fish aquaculture and bacterial diseases prevention.
With the rapid advancement of modern marine ranching construction, the development of marine aquaculture industry has become a significant measure to implement the concept of an integrated approach to food [1-2]. China, as the world’s largest aquaculture producer, achieved a mariculture output of 22.757 million tons in 2022, of which deep-water cage culture contributed about 393 000 tons, reflecting a growth rate of 600% compared with 2011 [3-5]. Cage culture has gradually become the dominant method for marine fish farming in China [6-7]. Since Hainan Province first introduced flexible anti-wind and wave cages from Norway in 1998, advancements have included the successful launch of China’s independently patented high-density polyethylene (HDPE) lift-up deep-water cages in 2002, the endurance of the Category 17 super typhoon “Mangkhut” by “Dehai No. 1” in 2018, and the successful operation of the new marine ranch “Genghai No. 1,” which integrates aquaculture, smart fisheries, recreational fisheries, research and development, and science education. These development underscores the inevitable trend towards the transformation and upgrading of marine fisheries. Future directions aim for production intensification, informatized management, and environmental sustainability, driving cage culture toward deeper and more distant seas [8-12].
In analyzing the structural forces on deep-water net cages, Yao et al. [13] proposed a mixed volume method for solving fluid-structure interactions using Navier-Stokes equations and analyzed the load-bearing capacity of rigid and flexible net cages under varying flow velocities. Li et al. [14-16] utilized the Morrison equation and diffraction-radiation theory, coupling the floating frame’s unit beam structure with the fishing net truss model to study forces from sea currents and waves. Park et al. [17] derived resistance coefficients for sea floating frames based on immersion depths of three different HDPE pipe diameters, calculating deformation and stress distribution under flow loads. Yang et al. [18] used diffraction theory and the Morrison equation to calculate wave forces, establishing motion equations to analyze cylindrical floating net cages. Guo et al. [19] employed potential flow theory and nonlinear motion control equations to create a numerical model of gravity-type anti-wind and wave cages, comparing mooring line tension, floating frame motion, and cage deformation under different typhoon conditions against traditional grid-type cages.
To alleviate the pressures on coastal aquaculture and expand deep-sea aquaculture, this study proposes a new composite anti-wind and wave deep-sea aquaculture cage designed to withstand adverse sea conditions. Unlike traditional HDPE gravity-type wind-resistant structures, this cage adopts an innovative hyperstatic anti-wind and wave design, replacing traditional floating rings and frames with a double-float configuration. Environmental loads from wind, waves, and currents under extreme oceanic conditions are calculated and analyzed, providing design references for the development of large-scale anti-wind and wave aquaculture cages.
The newly designed composite anti-wind and wave aquaculture cage comprises floats, a three-dimensional floating frame structure, a mooring system, and a fishing net system (Fig. 1). Unlike traditional single-centered aquaculture cages, the aquaculture area in this design is symmetrically distributed on both sides of the integrated three-dimensional floating frame. Buoyancy is provided by floats installed above the aquaculture areas. A rigid connection between the floats and the three-dimensional floating frame ensures that the floats move only vertically with sea waves. This design keeps the cage stable and balanced while floating, reducing the impact of wind and waves. The symmetrical double-cage configuration effectively minimizes arching and sagging caused by rigid connections, preventing structural damage or rupture.
Traditional Chinese net cages rely on floating frames for buoyancy [20-22]. However, designs utilizing floats to provide overall buoyancy, particularly in double-float configurations for anti-wind and wave cages, are uncommon domestically. This cylindrical float (Fig. 2) provides buoyancy and houses compartments such as living quarters, electromechanical equipment, bait storage, and ballast systems. The float features a double-layer shell with a metal anti-corrosion coating on the outer layer to resist seawater and breeze erosion, along with a collision-protection layer to safeguard structural integrity. Ballast compartments allow for center-of-gravity adjustments to ensure stability. Float spacing can be adjusted based on operational sea conditions, ensuring the natural pitching period avoids resonance with common wave periods.
As illustrated in Fig. 3, the three-dimensional floating frame consists of an underframe, stand columns, and a top frame, forming an integrated structure. The underframe, made from carling beams and diagonal shores (Fig. 4), encloses two aquaculture areas, enabling diversification while minimizing fish loss in case of net damage. Unlike modular cages, which are prone to damage at connecting points under wave and current loads [23], the integrated frame distributes loads across the structure, enhancing anti-wind and wave capability.
The materials include HDPE floating pipes, which offer buoyancy and tensile strength, making them both cost-effective and highly suitable for the application. The top frame, structurally similar to the underframe, consists of carling Ⅰ and beam Ⅰ (Fig. 5). It is primarily used for connection and positioning, with the steel pipes made of high-density, high-strength alloy steel. Reinforcement structures are strategically placed at stress concentration points to enhance the shear and bending strength of the central steel pipe as a whole [24].
The three-dimensional floating frame is the main structural component of the net cage and its structural strength is crucial to safety. This designed floating frame, in combination with the float, provides the necessary buoyancy for the net cage. Together with the foundation frame and additional weight, it generates a downward pull, ensuring force balance in the vertical direction on the sea.
The fishing net serves to secure the farming area, restrict the movement of farmed fish, prevent their escape, and also block predators such as sharks. It consists of five components: top net, side wall net, backing screen, foundation frame, and additional weight (Fig. 6). The design is based on the shape of the three-dimensional floating frame, with the side wall net and backing screen enclosing the farming area. These components are connected through the foundation frame and are expanded underwater into a fixed shape by their own weight and the added weight’s gravity.
The fishing net is made of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHM-WPE) fibers, which have a molecular weight 30 to 50 times greater than that of ordinary polyethylene (PE) and a breaking strength approximately four times that of nylon multifilament net [25]. Its mesh is diamond-shaped, measuring 35 mm × 35 mm. Due to its tendency to deform under its own weight and external forces, it may suffer damage, potentially allowing farmed fish to escape. In addition, in high-flow velocity areas, such as deep-sea conditions, the impact of the additional weight system on deformation is significant [26]. Therefore, it is essential to increase the additional weight system, which in this design, is set to 2 342 kg.
The key to the wind and wave resistance of this net cage lies in the hyperstatic structure formed by the connection between the dangling body and the three-dimensional floating frame. This system consists of a “cross-shaped” rigid connection, formed by combining the lower clapboard of the float with the hollow column (Fig. 7) and the three-dimensional floating frame. This structure provides significant damping for the net cage’s swinging and longitudinal rocking movements, minimizing the amplitude of its motion in response to wave action and achieving relative stability.
The dangling body, composed of the float, hollow column, and clapboard, features a conical wave-buffering zone at the connection between the columnar float and hollow column. This design effectively connects the hollow column and clapboard, offering buffering and anti-rocking functionality. The resulting dangling from the clapboard significantly reduces the movement amplitude of the net cage, ensuring stability even in large wave conditions.
The transition zone of the carling Ⅱ structure in this net cage serves two main functions: connecting the float and providing an oblique supporting force to enable vertical motion of the float under wind and wave conditions; and acting as a wave-buffering zone that allows waves to gradually climb along the conical surface, dissipating wave energy. Unlike vertical wall structures, where waves climb significantly higher (Fig. 8), increasing the wave load on the net cage, the oblique design guides waves to break along the slope, thus significantly reducing the wave load experienced by the net cage.
To calculate the environmental loads acting on the net cage, it is essential to consider the natural conditions of the sea area where the cage is located, including factors such as sea winds, waves, and currents. Particular attention must be given to extreme weather events like storm surges and typhoons, which can significantly damage the cage structure, leading to serious consequences such as fish escapes or structural failure of the net cage. Therefore, when designing an anti-wind and wave net cage, calculating the environmental loads that the net cage might experience is crucial.
The gravity-type, anti-wind and wave net cage’s grid structure does not experience inertial forces from marine currents. However, the fishing net itself is impacted by underwater current resistance. As a result, the primary focus when analyzing current load is the deformation of the fishing net. Given the irregular surface structure of the net, the effect of fluid flow around the mesh openings is neglected. Instead, the netting twine is segmented for calculation, allowing for the assessment of water resistance. First, the water flow conditions in the aquaculture area are clarified: the seawater density (ρ) is taken as 1.025 × 103 kg·m–3, the water flow velocity (v) is assumed to be 1 m·s–1, and the flow area of the fishing net (A) is 287 m2.
Using the Morrison equation and general fluid dynamics principles, the resistance of the fishing net in the water flow can be calculated using the following equation:
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FD=12CDρAv2 |
(1) |
where FD is the resistance (N) and CD is the water resistance coefficient.
The key to calculating the resistance of the fishing net lies in selecting the appropriate water resistance coefficient for the netting. In this study, the experimental results by Li and Gui [27] were referenced to determine the relationship between the water resistance coefficient and Reynolds number for the fishing net in a vertical position. Under a fixed deformation of the fishing net, the overall hydrodynamic estimation uses the resistance coefficient under normal conditions. The relationship between the fishing net’s water resistance coefficient and Reynolds number can be simplified as
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CD=1.19(Rλe)−u0.3σ |
(2) |
where Rλe=Rd1e2α, ReRe is the Reynolds number; d1 is the netting twine diameter; α is the net cage projection area coefficient; λ is the characteristic length of the fishing net (with 500 < Reλ < 4 000) The Reynolds number is calculated as
|
Re=ρvd1μ |
(3) |
where μ is the viscosity coefficient, μ=1.01 × 10-3; d1 is the netting twine diameter (0.001 8 m). Thus, the Reynolds number is calculated as Re=1 826.73, and the corresponding water resistance coefficient CD=0.908 8. Therefore, the water resistance of the net cage is: FD=131 108 N=131.108 kN.
The wave load on the net cage is divided into two components: the fishing net and the floating frame. This paper primarily focuses on floating frame of the net cage. The forces acting on the horizontal and vertical frame columns are calculated using the Morrison equation. For wave parameters under a wind speed of level 8 (According to the Beaufort scale), the following values are selected: wave height H=8 m; water depth D=50 m; period T=8 s; wavelength L=99.5 m. Thus, the wave number k=2π·L–1, and the wave frequency ω=2π·T–1. The resistance coefficient CD=1.2, and the inertia force coefficient Cm=2. The water flow velocity v=1 m·s–1.
Considering that the wave load on a single longitudinal frame column includes both the velocity force and the inertia force, the following calculations are made: The extreme velocity force per unit length is first calculated as
|
frd,max |
(4) |
This value is then integrated to obtain the total force
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F_{r d, \max }=\frac{1}{16} \gamma C_D d_2 H^2\left(1+\frac{2 k D}{\sinh 2 k D}\right) |
(5) |
Using existing standards and design dimensions, the additional mass coefficient γ=1.2 and pipe diameter d2=0.6 m, we can now calculate the extreme velocity force on a single vertical frame column, which is
|
F_{r d, \max }=\frac{1}{16} \gamma C_{\mathrm{D}} d_2 H^2\left(1+\frac{2 k D}{\sinh 2 k D}\right)=888.31(\mathrm{~N}) |
The extreme inertia force per unit length is calculated as
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f_{x t, \max }=C_m \frac{\gamma \pi d_2^2 k H}{8} \frac{\cosh k(z+h)}{\cosh k D} |
(6) |
After integration, the total inertia force is
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F_{x t, \max }=\frac{1}{8} \gamma d_2^2 H C_m \frac{\sinh k D}{\cosh k D} |
(7) |
Thus, the extreme inertia force on a single vertical frame column is
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F_{x t, \max }=\frac{1}{8} \gamma \pi D^2 H C_m \frac{\sinh k D}{\cosh k D}=2~828.67(\mathrm{~N}) |
Finally, the total extreme wave force acting on a single vertical frame column is
|
F=F_{r d, \max }+F_{x t, \max }=888.31+2828.67=3~716.98(\mathrm{~N}) |
For all vertical frame columns, the total wave force is
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F_{\text {Vertical }}=30 \times 3716.98=111.509~4(\mathrm{kN}) |
The wave force on the horizontal cylindrical pipe is calculated using the modified Morrison equation, which provides the force per unit length on the horizontal pipe
|
F_h=C_M \rho v \frac{\partial U_h}{\partial t}+\frac{1}{2} C_{\mathrm{D}} \rho A|W| U_h |
(8) |
Using linear wave theory, the wave equation at a position (x, z) at time t is
|
\eta(t)=\frac{H}{2} \sin \frac{2 \pi}{T} t |
(9) |
The velocity potential is given by
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\phi=-\frac{A g}{\omega} \frac{\cosh k(z+D)}{\cosh k D} \sin (k x-\omega t) |
(10) |
The horizontal velocity is given by
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u_x=\frac{A g k}{\omega} \frac{\cosh k(z+D)}{\cosh k D} \cos (k x+\omega t) |
(11) |
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\frac{\partial u_x}{\partial t}=A g k \frac{\cosh k(z+D)}{\cosh k D} \cos (k x-\omega t) |
(12) |
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w=\frac{A g k}{\omega} \frac{\cosh k(z+D)}{\cosh k D} \sin (k x-\omega t) |
(13) |
Finally, the total wave force acting on all horizontal frame columns is
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F_{\text {Horizonalal }}=233.314(\mathrm{kN}) |
Thus, the total force on the floating frame is
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F_{\text {Total }}=F_{\text {Vertical }}+F_{\text {Horizontal }}=344.818~9(\mathrm{kN}) |
As the main structure of the anti-wind and wave net cage is submerged underwater, only the float and the shuttling corridors are directly subjected to marine wind loads. Considering the frequent typhoon-prone areas in China and the current material and manufacturing standards, the extreme wind speed is assumed to be 37 m·s–1, corresponding to a Level 12 typhoon.
For the wind load on the exposed surfaces of the net cage, the Bernoulli equation is used to calculate the dynamic pressure of the sea wind acting on the float
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W_{\mathrm{p}}=0.5 \cdot r_{\mathrm{u}} \cdot V^2 |
(14) |
where Wp is the wind pressure (kN·m–2); ru is the air density (kg·m–3).
By replacing air density (ru) with the specific weight (r), the equation becomes: r= ru·g, which is substituted into formula (14) to obtain
|
W_{\mathrm{p}}=0.5 \cdot r \cdot \frac{V^2}{g} |
(15) |
Assuming standard atmospheric pressure at sea level (101 325 Pa) and a temperature of 15°C, the air specific weight (r) is calculated as r=\frac{0.012~25}{m^3}. With the acceleration due to gravity (g) taken as 9.8 m·s–2, the final wind pressure is derived:
|
W_{\mathrm{p}}=\frac{V^2}{1600} |
(16) |
The wind load on the net cage is given:
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F=V^2 \cdot \frac{A}{1600} |
(17) |
where A represents the windward area of the net cage in the direction of the vertical wind velocity (m2). The primary wind resistance comes from the horizontal wind. For this net cage, the windward area A is determined to be 309.3 m2.
Substituting the extreme wind speed and windward into the equation, the resulting wind load is F=264.645 kN.
Based on the calculation results, a comparison is made between the newly designed composite anti-wind and wave net cage and traditional HDPE gravity-based net cages. Referring to the findings of Huang et al. [28], which pertain to deep-water net cages (typically with perimeters of 40 to 80 meters in coastal areas) for a wave height of 5 m, wave period of 8 s, and flow velocity of 0.75 m/s, the maximum wave force on an 80-meter perimeter net cage is calculated to be 85 kN. This value is significantly smaller than the wave load that the newly designed composite net cage can withstand. In addition, the works of Nie et al. [29] and Huang et al. [30] on gravity-type net cages under water flow conditions are referenced for current load calculations. These studies only consider the impact of water flow on the fishing net. With a flow velocity of 1 m/s and a fishing net flow area of 210 m2, the average water resistance force on the net cage is 109.4 kN, which is comparable to the load-bearing capacity of the newly designed composite wind and wave-resistant net cage. For wind load, the results of Wu et al. [31], who studied the wind and wave resistance of HDPE deep-water net cages in the Zhoushan sea area, are used as the reference standard. When the wind speed exceeds 35 m/s, the maximum wind load on a 48-meter perimeter net cage is found to be 21.923 kN. This is much smaller than the wind load the newly designed composite wind and wave-resistant net cage can withstand. These comparisons clearly show that the newly designed net cage can withstand much larger wind and wave loads than traditional HDPE net cages.
In response to the limitations of traditional net cages, which are unable to withstand the pressure impact from environmental loads such as wind, waves, and currents [32-33], a composite wind and wave-resistant net cage has been designed for deep-sea aquaculture, based on actual offshore operating conditions. The Morrison formula and Bernoulli’s equation were used to calculate the forces on the net cage under wind, wave, and current loads. These results were compared with those of traditional HDPE net cages. The main conclusions are as follows:
1) The new composite wind and wave-resistant net cage introduces an innovative dual-float design that provides greater buoyancy and is connected to a three-dimensional floating frame structure, forming a hyperstatic wind and wave-resistant structure. Unlike traditional HDPE net cages, the new design ensures that the upper part of the structure experiences minimal wave load variations. When load changes occur in the upper part, the overall structure does not tilt significantly, maintaining the cage’s functionality. This design increases the usable area of the deck, enabling it to store larger amounts of materials.
2) The composite net cage allows for adjustments in the distance between the two floats, which alters the distance of the dangling body beneath the floats. This ensures that the dangling body’s distance is greater than the extreme wavelength in the working sea area. In addition, the damping effect provided by the dangling body, along with its roll-reducing action, helps control the net cage’s movement amplitude and ensures structural safety.
3) The three-dimensional floating frame structure, which serves as the primary load-bearing component for wave loads, is simplified to include horizontal and vertical rods that are subjected to both velocity and inertial forces. Under a level 8 wind, the maximum load on the structure is approximately 344.82 kN. The dual-float design increases the windward area, and under extreme wind conditions, such as a level 12 typhoon, the extreme wind load is calculated around 264.65 kN. The current load on the net cage, based on underwater resistance, is estimated to be approximately 131.11 kN. Given these conditions, the newly designed net cage is capable of withstanding higher environmental loads than traditional HDPE net cages, providing valuable reference data for future research, development, and production.
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